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flow in one direction, whereas protons (ionised 10,000 to 100,000 times larger than either an electron or hydrogen) and other positively charged ions flow inthe a proton. The theory behind proton conduction is opposite direction to that of the negatively charged complex, so only highlights will be discussed here. particles. From a particle standpoint, there are __ Individual protons are extremely active and tend to bind differences to be noted. Electrons, being lightweight,as easily whenever atoms are present with outer-orbit opposed to protons and other positive ions (made up o electrons which may be shared. protons and neutrons in ionised atoms), travel with a There are two primary modes of proton conduction higher velocity than do ions. But particles of each discussed in the literature (although others have been charge come under the same force provided in a considered). The first mode is where the proton forms a magnetic field, only they have different movemen bond with an existing atom. For example, the oxygen in characteristics. a water molecule (H2O) may temporarily gain an extra When a thunder cloud moves over an area of land, the — proton (H30). If the molecule is capable of rotation, the potential difference between the cloud and the ground extra proton (whose bond is relatively weak) can create creates a current flow of electrons to or from the ground a bond with a nearby water molecule and then break directly below the cloud. This is a local effect. However, loose from its existing bond with the first water disregarding local effects, there is a component o molecule. In this manner, the proton is passed from magnetic force from the Earth which acts on charged molecule to molecule, which essentially provides a particles. We know that currents flow within the Earth, | method for proton conduction (Poulsen, 1980). Water so why shouldn't there be a (liquid or solid) is not the only similar flow of individual type of molecule in which this protons within the Earth? effect has been studied It is good to reiterate at this It is good to reiterate at (Glasser, 1975). point that new matter, in the hi Q h The second mode o form of atoms, requires both this point that new matter, conduction is where a larger electrons and protons; either in the form of atoms molecule exists which contains alone is not enough. When we . Z a number of tightly bound are talking about matter requires both electrons atoms. Of particular interes increase within the Earth, we and protons; either alone here is that materials exhibiting therefore must have both types . the structure of perovskite (a of particles present. Is there Is not enough. mineral with the same type o such a phenomenon as proton crystal structure as calcium flow within a liquid or solid? titanium oxide, CaTiO:) have oxygen atoms which create an Proton Conduction interactive electric-potential field where a proton finds a There is a large amount of both theoretical and resting spot between such atoms (Kreuer, 1996). experimental evidence for proton conduction. Much of | Assuming that these molecules are in a matrix structure, he recent research effort in this field has been as is frequently the case with solids, a virtual path is motivated by the desire to find substances which can created that is analogous to a virtual proton-carrying effectively separate charged particles in materials _ wire, so that protons can travel almost unimpeded from aving practical applications, particularly in areas such _— molecule to molecule. as fuel cells, electrochemical sensors, electrochemical The point being made here is that proton conduction reactors and electrochromic devices (Kreuer, 1996). in both liquids and solids has been observed What has been made clear from this research is that experimentally and has been intensively studied. he mechanism of proton conduction is much different Proton conduction is not just a theoretical han that of electron conduction. Whereas electron phenomenon; it is empirically based. current flow is generally based on freely mobile Within the interior of the Earth, several well-defined electrons as found in metals, protons don't move ina __ layers have been found by using a variety of techniques, similar manner because free protons don't behave like — primarily by recording and analysing seismic waves. ree electrons. Protons tend to bind to the electrons in Furthermore, studies have been conducted with regard outer orbit around the atoms in a liquid or solid. Then to proton conduction in the materials of which these he protons migrate in a molecule-to-molecule fashion layers are composed (Yoshino, 2010). The lower mantle, when acted upon by a magnetic force field. which constitutes the bulk of the material of the Earth, A couple of points to keep in mind are that protons _ is believed to be composed primarily of perovskite, are the same order of magnitude in size as electrons, | which, as mentioned above, has been found to be a and hence individual protons conduct in liquids and conductor of protons. Consequently, it is argued here solids better than other heavier positively charged ions. that there exists a probable pathway for likely The reason for this is that the smallest atom is roughly conduction of protons deep within the Earth under the It is good to reiterate at this point that new matter, in the form of atoms, of requires both electrons and protons; either alone is not enough. Proton Conduction There is a large amount of both theoretical and experimental evidence for proton conduction. Much of he recent research effort in this field has been motivated by the desire to find substances which can effectively separate charged particles in materials aving practical applications, particularly in areas such as fuel cells, electrochemical sensors, electrochemical reactors and electrochromic devices (Kreuer, 1996). What has been made clear from this research is that he mechanism of proton conduction is much different han that of electron conduction. Whereas electron current flow is generally based on freely mobile electrons as found in metals, protons don't move in a similar manner because free protons don't behave like ree electrons. Protons tend to bind to the electrons in outer orbit around the atoms in a liquid or solid. Then he protons migrate in a molecule-to-molecule fashion when acted upon by a magnetic force field. A couple of points to keep in mind are that protons are the same order of magnitude in size as electrons, and hence individual protons conduct in liquids and solids better than other heavier positively charged ions. The reason for this is that the smallest atom is roughly 46 * NEXUS APRIL - MAY 2011 www.nexusmagazine.com