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movements are relative. There are indeed simple means to determine whether you are moving or at rest. There are absolute frames of reference, as proved by Georges Sagnac in 1913 and by later researchers using spinning ring interferometers. Thus, Einstein set out to build a new theory on unsecured ground, with postulates that were either disproved or not yet proved at all. And even stranger, the postulates in the GTR and the STR have no inherent logic or connection: the two theories are simply two altogether different theories—not two versions of one theory, as claimed! had visited him—but had he really? Had they not all "stolen" a little from previous geniuses and thrown in some of their own work? Isn't this what all theoretical speculations are about, when you are not in a secluded laboratory making your own discoveries? As is soon to be proved, professional peeking and borrowing were not such uncommon deeds after all. And who then deserves the glory—one or many? are simply two altogether different theories—not two versions of | Mercurial Feats one theory, as claimed! From Einstein's 64-page paper on the mathematical formalism for gravity in four-dimensional "space-time", published in Curving Paper Annalen der Physik in 1916,** three consequences could be Perhaps unaware of these objections, Einstein set out to create a deduced: (a) the orbit of a small planet close to a central, geometrical theory of gravitation, claiming he was extending his erfectly spherical Sun; the orbits of larger planets far from the STR to anew domain. The grand idea was based on Professor Sun seemed mathematically impossible to solve; (b) the bending Hermann Minkowski's observation that four-dimensional space- of light as it passed a very heavy object (e.g., the Sun); and (c) the time is a mathematical manifold, where accelerated movements red shift of light in a strong gravitational field (reduction of the will follow a curved path in the four-dimensional paper-world. frequency of light). These were the so-called "classical tests". But instead of making curved paths on paper, why not curve the Einstein claimed innocently that he had no knowledge of or paper instead and let accelerated objects follow the shortest path intention to solve such problems; they magically "popped out of between two points (geodesic) in the curved world? is formalism" as a gift to science, in keeping with his message of The reason for this seemingly advanced mathematical trick was a lofty science remote from mundane life that once in a while not to gain better knowledge of the forces involved; it was the lesses practical life with unforeseen gifts. desire to pursue an old German But all these "classical tests" had dream to express the forces of nature some strange déja vu to them, as the as geometrical equations. informed were soon to discover. The Contrary to popular belief, this first of the tests concerned the most idea did not stem from Einstein: two ready candidate because of its strange German mathematicians presented it He not only said that Einstein orbit: Mercury, the closest planet to more than 70 years earlier. One was our assumedly spherical Sun. This Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), had been inspired by Gerber's orbit shifts its perihelion (closest who introduced the idea of multi- non-relativistic equations, but approach to the Sun) by approximately accused him of outright forgery. dimensional "spaces"; the other was one of the really great mathematical geniuses of all ages, Hermann Riemann (1826-66), who developed the complete mathematical tools and concepts for curved multi- 574 arc-seconds per 100 years. Freundlich gave Einstein the number for the Mercury perihelion shift as 45 arc-seconds per year, and Einstein adjusted his GRT so that it matched the perihelion number.” dimensional "spaces". In 1854 Einstein used a method called Riemann put forth a complete draft for a theory of gravitation, "classical approximation", and he assumed that the GTR must transforming Newton's laws of forces into a geometrical produce classical equations if gravitational fields are "weak" and description of geodesic movements in curved spaces.*** But even that some new equations applied when gravitation is "strong". in doing so, Riemann never meant to counteract Newton's But when it came to the equations expressing Mercury's orbit, discoveries; he only wanted to create some geometrical beauty. there was something strange. They not only popped out of the According to his biographers, Einstein knew nothing of Gauss's GTR formalism, they resembled perfectly, to the most minute and Riemann's works. It was assumed that his ideas only came detail, the equations of another German: schoolteacher Paul from Minkowski, who for sure knew of them. Unfortunately for Gerber, who had published them 18 years earlier in 1898. His Einstein, Minkowski died of peritonitis in 1909, just a few months equations were based on the assumption that the gravitational after having given Einstein these new ideas, so Einstein had to ask forces spread with a finite speed, c, and that their interaction with his friend Michael Grossmann what they were all about.** Later, bodies depended on their speed.*' British mathematician Ebenezer Cunningham (1881-1977) wrote Physicist Ernst Gehrcke (1878-1960), who had previously an article on the subject, published in Nature in February 1921, criticised Einstein in 1911, brought the whole affair into public stating that "no one knows if he [Einstein] would ever have view as soon as he had read the GTR paper. He not only said that reached so far without the genius of Minkowski". Einstein had been inspired by Gerber's non-relativistic equations, Today, Grossman's work is seen to have provided the but accused him of outright forgery. Once more, the same strange mathematical formalism of the GTR. But it may be worth situation repeated itself as had happened on previous occasions remembering that the formalism was not all due to the when someone criticised Einstein: he ran out of arguments. Not Minkowski-Grossmann-Einstein "team", as we would say today. until four years later did Einstein comment upon the accusations, Another well-known contender had entered the scene with the stating: "The experts are not only in agreement that Gerber's same theory: mathematician David Hilbert (1862-1943). On 20 derivations are wrong through and through, but the formula November 1915, he presented the full concept in Gottingen; five cannot be obtained as a consequence of the main assumptions days later, Einstein presented his paper at the Prussian Academy.” made by Gerber. Mr Gerber's work is therefore completely Later, Einstein accused Hilbert of having stolen his ideas when he useless, an unsuccessful and erroneous theoretical attempt.'"’” He not only said that Einstein had been inspired by Gerber's non-relativistic equations, but accused him of outright forgery. 48 = NEXUS www.nexusmagazine.com OCTOBER — NOVEMBER 2007