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NEWSCIENCENEWSCIENCENEWSCIENCE but five- and 10-second echoes were heard anyway. From this, Galle and Talon came to the conclusion that some echoes might have a delay of 40 seconds or more: either their musical tone sequence let them down, or they were unable to believe evidence that the probe was anticipating their signals as it transmitted its "replies". The overall intensity of the echoes decreased as the Sun approached the horizon, as we would expect if there were a probe in the Moon equilateral position descending from the meridian. A diagram they published gave an idea of the complexity of the echo patterns and the difficulty of transcribing them. but five- and 10-second echoes were heard Budden and Yates published the results anyway. From this, Galle and Talon came _ of their experiments in 1952. During the to the conclusion that some echoes might time of their research, they sent out have a delay of 40 seconds or more: either approximately 27,000 test signals. They their musical tone sequence let them down, detected "round-the-world echoes", but no or they were unable to believe evidence LDE phenomenon. However, the fact that that the probe was anticipating their signals they detected "round-the-world echoes" as it transmitted its "replies". The overall indicates that even though their antenna intensity of the echoes decreased as the Sun _ arrangement was designed to send the radio approached the horizon, as we would waves in a vertical direction, they were expect if there were a probe in the Moon _ detecting ionospheric reflections—just like equilateral position descending from the — what we detect in long-distance short-wave meridian. A diagram they published gave reception. Budden and Yates came to the an idea of the complexity of the echo conclusion that they had picked frequencies patterns and the difficulty of transcribing too high and that the arrangement of the them. transmitting antenna had too high an angle of radiation—meaning that they were Postwar research into LDEs transmitting in an upwards direction as Interest in the LDE phenomenon seemed opposed to horizontal in relation to the to die out by the mid-1930s, but new _ surface of the Earth. studies were undertaken after the war in After some scientists recorded signal 1947 to 1949. Researchers Budden an reflections while doing research into Yates, of Cambridge University in plasma (electrically charged gas) in the England, set up transmitters of | kW an 1960s, there was renewed interest in the 30 kW, transmitting on frequencies of | LDE phenomenon. 13,400 and 20,600 kilohertz (22.38 an Research was done at Stanford 14.56 metres). An antenna was set up soas —_ University between 1967 and 1971. It had to emit the radio waves in a vertical been theorised that some of the effects direction. It was hoped that a certain observed in the laboratory could possibly number of the radio signals would travel _ be realised in the plasma of the ionosphere. out into space and hit "ionised clouds", However, this had not yet been borne out which were theorised by the researchers as _ by actual research. So, a 20 kW transmitter eing sent out by the Sun towards Earth. — was set up to broadcast at between 5,000 These "ionised clouds" would eventually and 25,000 kilohertz. The transmitting e called the "solar wind", as we know it antenna or aerial was of the "log-periodic" today. type, which looks somewhat like a conventional television antenna but — a —_—_, works on a different You wAAT IDENTITY THEFT. eo principle. The Dore! THE HALL, THIRD Poor RIGHT, 4 Stanford equipment — was modified a number of times. The researchers thought they had detected their first LDEs in October 1968, but had to discount these noises as interference from inside the radio equipment. In January and February 1970, they detected two long-delay echoes at 10,620 and 11,020 kilohertz, with time delays of 15 and 20 seconds. By 1971, they had detected 31 LDEs. In all this research, it was determined that the automated means that had been set up to record the LDE pulses had been less effective than simply using the human ear. After this, scientists were much more cautious in their LDE research and much more wary of accepting the research of others. In 1985, scientists critically re-evaluated the Stanford research on the LDE phenomenon. Some further studies were undertaken and LDEs were detected, but these measurements were discounted. The earlier Stanford research was dismissed as being related to "technical side effects". Data put forth by Canadian researcher Goodacre was also treated with some apprehension. Postwar research into LDEs Interest in the LDE phenomenon seeme to die out by the mid-1930s, but new studies were undertaken after the war in 1947 to 1949. Researchers Budden an Yates, of Cambridge University in England, set up transmitters of 1 kW an 30 kW, transmitting on frequencies of 13,400 and 20,600 kilohertz (22.38 an 14.56 metres). An antenna was set up so as to emit the radio waves in a vertical direction. It was hoped that a certain number of the radio signals would trave out into space and hit "ionised clouds", which were theorised by the researchers as being sent out by the Sun towards Earth. These "ionised clouds" would eventually be called the "solar wind", as we know it today. Amateur radio experiments Radio amateurs such as Goodacre have long provided the most comprehensive data on the LDE phenomenon. Goodacre detected eight possible LDE effects and eventually wrote them up ina scientific paper. In 1978 and 1979 he had been doing his experiments in the vicinity of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, using frequencies of around 28,000 kilohertz (10- metre amateur band), a highly directional antenna and a 400-watt transmitter. Goodacre sent out pulses using an automatic Morse code-sending device. He was transmitting radio waves in the direction of the western horizon when communications in the 10-metre band became poor. (Note that the 10-metre amateur band is normally only useful for long-distance communications when there is continuous daylight between the stations communicating with each other.) In other directions, communications were already impossible on the 10-metre band. Goodacre noted the frequencies of interest in the band at the same time as these were recorded on tape. He did this so that the only findings that were given serious evaluation were those which had already been suspected of being LDEs. This avoided any mistakes due to the "copying effect" of magnetic tapes. Finally, Goodacre studied the tape recordings using an oscilloscope. Signals which are called "short wave"— or, in amateur radio terminology, high frequency or HF—don't normally escape the ionosphere (the charged layers in the upper atmosphere that reflect radio signals). These short-wave signals, which are from 2,000 to 30,000 kilohertz, bounce 46 = NEXUS www.nexusmagazine.com AUGUST - SEPTEMBER 2006