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However, Tesla went on to say that the radiometer, although A ray of radiant energy can make many transitions as it passes important in its concept, was perhaps one of the most inefficient through space and interacts with ambient matter. Atoms, the energy converters ever invented. Crookes's radiometer relied on building blocks of physical matter, are composed of a positively the mechanical interaction between light particles and matter. charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Tesla had discovered through his own work with radiant energy Normally there are enough electrons to balance out the positive lamps that there was a subtler link between matter and light which charge of the nucleus, thus forming an electrically neutral atom. would prove more efficient; this link was electricity. Tf, however, an electron is removed from the atom, then an imbal- The link between the electrical force and light had been theo- ance of electrical charge will be created, making the atom posi- rised by Maxwell, while such scientists as Crookes and Lord tively charged; the atom is now an ion. If this occurs throughout Kelvin had extensively investigated the electrical nature of matter. the majority of atoms in a gas, then the gas becomes what is Tesla now intended to bring these two together to form a simple known as plasma. yet useful technology. Any mechanism that removes electrons from their parent atoms US patents nos. 685,957 and 685,958 describe Tesla's apparatus can cause the ionisation of matter. This is a characteristic of all for receiving radiant energy from the natural medium. A capaci- usable radiant energy. High-velocity particles can impart some of tor is connected to earth via a metal conductor inserted into the their momentum onto the orbiting electrons of atoms; this tends to ground. The other terminal of the capacitor is connected to a give the electrons enough energy to break away from their parent metal plate of large surface area and raised high off the ground. nuclei. While the plate is continuously being Among the most common interac- bombarded by radiant energy, it tions are those involving light parti- becomes electrically charged. This cles, or photons. When a photon charge is then stored in the capacitor enters an atom, it imparts some of its as it tries to find a path to ground. The link between the electrical energy onto an orbiting electron. If Across ne capacitor pee s a switche force and light had been re onerey is comparatively small, ing mechanism and the load that is to . . then the electron will simply jump to be powered. The switching mecha- theorised by Maxwell, while a higher orbit but still remain cou- nism periodically discharges the such scientists as Crookes and pled to the nucleus. After a small capacitor's energy into the load, turn- period of time, the electron will ing the radiant energy into usable DC Lord Kelvin had extensively return to its original orbit by emit- electricity. investigated the electrical ting a photon to dispose of the It is not known if Tesla ever tested excess energy. This is the mecha- this invention, although he does allude nature of matter. nism behind the operation of a laser. to the fact that it had been tested in Electromagnetic waves or photons principle. It is more likely that he can only cause the ionisation of mat- developed it along the lines of his par- ter at wavelengths much shorter than ticle beam device or death ray. those of visible light. It is only pho- Specifically, he had developed a means of transmitting electrical tons in the ultraviolet band and higher that have enough energy to energy via a particle beam; this was probably the energy receiver _ cause electrons to be liberated from their parent nuclei. This he was intending to use. This application of the radiant energy effect is known as the photoelectric effect, where a metal conduc- receiver is clearly cited in his patent, which explores the use of tor manages to gain and lose charge when exposed to electromag- both ionising radiation, such as ultraviolet and X-rays, and parti- netic radiation. Its theoretical explanation won Albert Einstein cle beams, referred to as Lenard rays. the Nobel Prize several years later, yet Tesla had already utilised To employ this apparatus to utilise naturally occurring radiant __ the effect as described. At wavelengths in the X-ray and gamma energy would require an elevated metal plate of such a large sur- ray bands, the photons have enough energy to cause the multiple face area as to render it impractical. The principle behind Tesla's ionisation of atoms as they pass through matter; it is this that radiant energy receiver is well founded, as most people who own makes them so dangerous. Higher still in the electromagnetic a car will have felt the effect. On a hot summer's day, most at spectrum there are wavelengths that are even more energetic, some point will have received an electrostatic shock when they holding such a quantum punch that they are able to cause the open the car door. This is because naturally occurring radiant complete breakdown of atomic structure. These are known as energy accumulates an electrical charge on the large surface area cosmic rays. of the car body. This charge does not leak away, as the car body If the energy imparted onto an electron is great enough, the is well insulated from the ground by the insulating tyres. It is electron may not only break away from the nucleus but also have only when an earthed object, such as an unsuspecting driver, sufficient energy to cause the ionisation of another atom. This is approaches it that the charge instantaneously discharges to known as secondary emission, and it plays a major role in most ground, hence the shock. plasma formations. As electrons and other charged particles can be accelerated by electric fields, it is possible to cause the libera- FORMS OF RADIANT ENERGY tion of electrons, or ionisation, through electricity. This can be At this point it may be worth explaining exactly what radiant done in one of two ways: either an intense electric field is made energy is and how it is naturally generated. Basically, radiant to pass through the matter to be ionised; or a charged particle energy can come in one of two different forms: electromagnetic stream is accelerated to high velocities, via an electric field, waves or streams of high-velocity particles. In practice, it is only before being made to strike the target matter. The latter process is electromagnetic waves in the ultraviolet band and higher, or elec- the basis of Tesla's death ray and other particle beam weapons. trically charged particles such as ions, protons, electrons and Tesla's radiant energy receiver, as described above, was some of the other more exotic members of the quantum zoo. designed specifically to intercept high-energy particles from outer A ray of radiant energy can make many transitions as it passes through space and interacts with ambient matter. Atoms, the building blocks of physical matter, are composed of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Normally there are enough electrons to balance out the positive charge of the nucleus, thus forming an electrically neutral atom. Tf, however, an electron is removed from the atom, then an imbal- ance of electrical charge will be created, making the atom posi- tively charged; the atom is now an ion. If this occurs throughout the majority of atoms in a gas, then the gas becomes what is known as plasma. Any mechanism that removes electrons from their parent atoms can cause the ionisation of matter. This is a characteristic of all usable radiant energy. High-velocity particles can impart some of their momentum onto the orbiting electrons of atoms; this tends to give the electrons enough energy to break away from their parent nuclei. force and light had been theorised by Maxwell, while such scientists as Crookes and Lord Kelvin had extensively investigated the electrical nature of matter. FORMS OF RADIANT ENERGY At this point it may be worth explaining exactly what radiant energy is and how it is naturally generated. Basically, radiant energy can come in one of two different forms: electromagnetic waves or streams of high-velocity particles. In practice, it is only electromagnetic waves in the ultraviolet band and higher, or elec- trically charged particles such as ions, protons, electrons and some of the other more exotic members of the quantum zoo. 44 = NEXUS The link between the electrical www.nexusmagazine.com AUGUST — SEPTEMBER 2001