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late Pliocene occupation of Europe, there is no reason to support a Miocene habitation. But there is a body of evidence that can pro- vide a context in which the Miocene discoveries of Ribeiro might make some sense. Miocene flint tools are reported from Puy de Boudieu, near Aurillac, in the department of Cantal in the Massif Central region of France (Verworn, 1905). The flint implements were found in layers of fluviatile sands, stones and eroded chalk, along with fos- sils of a typical Miocene fauna, including Dinotherium giganteum, Mastodon longirostris, Rhinocerus schleiermacheri and Hipparion gracile. The implement-bearing layers were cov- ered with basalt flows (Verworn, 1905:17). Verworn was very cautious in identifying the objects he found as objects manufactured by humans. Summarising his methodol- ogy, Verworn (1905:29) said: "Suppose I find in an interglacial stone bed a flint that bears a clear bulb of percussion, but no other symptoms of intentional work. In that case, I would be doubtful as to whether or not I had before me an object of human manufacture. But suppose I find there a flint which on one side shows all the typical signs of percussion, and which on the other side shows the negative impressions of two, three, four or more flakes removed by blows in the same direction. Furthermore, let us suppose one edge of the piece shows numerous successive small parallel flakes removed, all running in the same direction, and all, without exception, located on the same side of the edge. Let us suppose that all the other edges are sharp, without a trace of impact or rolling. Then I can say with complete certainty: it is an implement of human manufacture." This flint implement was found by Carlos Ribeiro in Miocene Verworn found about 200 specimens satisfying these criteria, formations at Espinhaco de Cao, Portugal. and some of these also showed use-marks on the working edges. Similar discoveries come from various places around the world. _ the conclusions formulated, notwithstanding the imposing array of They include stone tools from the Miocene of Burma (Noetling, testimony with which he was confronted." 1894), stone tools and artistically carved animal bone from the Holmes (1899:470) specifically appealed the Java Man discov- Miocene of Turkey (Calvert, 1874), incised and carved animal ery, suggesting that Whitney's evidence should be rejected bones from the Miocene of Europe (Garrigou and Filhol, 1868; von Diicker, 1873), stone tools from the Miocene of Europe (Bourgeois, 1873), stone tools and human skeletal remains from the Miocene of California (Whitney, 1880), and a human skeleton from the Miocene of France (de Mortillet, 1883:72). For an extensive review of such evidence from all periods of the Tertiary, from all parts of the world, see Cremo and Thompson (1993). Much of this evidence, like Ribeiro's evi- dence, disappeared from active considera- tion by archaeologists because of their com- mitment to a human evolutionary progres- sion anchored on Pithecanthropus erectus (Cremo, forthcoming). For example, the influential anthropolo- gist William H. Holmes (1899:424), of the Smithsonian Institution, rejected the California gold mine discoveries reported by J. D. Whitney by saying: "Perhaps if Professor Whitney had fully appreciated the : ~— ~ —— ~ story of human evolution as it is understood Author Michael A. Cremo examines a formation at Monte Redondo, Portugal, today, he would have hesitated to announce the site of some of Carlos Ribeiro's discoveries. the conclusions formulated, notwithstanding the imposing array of testimony with which he was confronted." Holmes (1899:470) specifically appealed the Java Man discov- ery, suggesting that Whitney's evidence should be rejected NEXUS = 61 Author Michael A. Cremo examines a formation at Monte Redondo, Portugal, the site of some of Carlos Ribeiro's discoveries. DECEMBER 2000 — JANUARY 2001