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328 Physical scientists often are skeptical about social science findings. MacGowan and Ordway declared that “most social science research sup- ports the current local political philosophy . . . circumstances usually dis- courage the investigation of any radical deviations from it.” Yet, later in the same book, they commented that both estimates of the prevalence of extrasolar intelligent societies and the immediate future well-being of our present human society hinge on greatly improved understanding of social evolution. This can only be achieved by greater cooperation and mutual support by physical and social scientists." Five SETI scientists proposed in 1977 that we must begin to explore systematically what the consequences of detection are likely to be in terms of human institutions and thought, drawing on the vision of philoso- phers, theologians, lawyers, artists, politicians, scientists, and others. Astronomers Black and Stull suggested sweepingly ambitious directions for studies: catalog and classify behavioral patterns and cultural differ- ences; determine how these are related to the environment, physiology, and evolutionary history of each species; determine what traits appear common to all intelligent animals; develop theoretical models that will allow extrapolation to extraterrestrial cultures.’ Anthropologist Finney, calling on SETI researchers to draw upon per- spectives outside of the biological and physical sciences, speculated that the search could help bridge intellectual gulfs within our own species, particularly between physical scientists and social scientists. This would be useful not only in framing research strategies, but also in developing methods for interpreting any messages received, and for addressing the question of sending a reply." A serious approach must be interdisciplinary. As NASA scientist David Morrison said about astrobiology research, understanding the conse- quences will require us to consider economics, environment, health, theol- ogy, ethics, quality of life, the sociopolitical realm, and education. Sivier suggested that the consilience offered by sociobiology and a more specula- tive approach by historians are inducing a cross-fertilization that may give greater insights into both the human condition and the nature and likeli- hood of extraterrestrial intelligence." John Billingham, who has argued in favor of social science involve- ment since the 1980s, wrote in 1994 that the time is ripe to begin a thorough scholarly examination of SETI and society. He identified these issues: — Historical analogs of detecting extraterrestrial intelligence. These might include the Copernican revolution, the voyages of discovery, and the possible discovery of life on Mars. Researchers might ask how well the predicted con- sequences equated with what actually happened. — The immediate responses to detection; planning for activities following detec- tion. This includes such procedures as verification and interpretation. What Is Missing