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306 Some optimists have countered this by emphasizing the more peaceful behavior of a related species, the bonobo. Yet, chimpanzee behavior cannot be swept under the ideological rug. Within the genus Homo, as many as 10 recognized species diverged over the past 2 million years, yet only one remains alive today. The absence of any gradations between ourselves and chimpanzees, Bracewell speculated, is due to harsh suppression that occurred at some time in the past when the struggle to determine which intelligent strains would survive was still unsettled. Humans migrated over the whole Earth and by their presence now preempt the possibility of future evolution in directions that would compete with their supremacy. Signs of intelligence, declared Bracewell, would bring immediate retribution. Even optimists like Drake acknowledge that among the intelligent species simultaneously existing on land, the one that is most intelligent has annihilated all close competitors.'* The extinction of rival intelligent species did not require weapons of mass destruction; simpler means sufficed. Mind-Stretcher. Competition with another humanoid form might have been an important selection feature in a drive toward superior intelli- On oe ee ae oe att gence. Some speculate that such competition may be necessary to create our level of intellect.'* Deliberate hostility may not be needed, just indifference. Rapidly expanding human populations have devastated chimpanzee and gorilla habitats in Africa; commercial hunting and logging now threaten their last redoubts. Unless they are protected, these other members of our family tree may be pushed to the brink of extinction within the next decade.'™ Rood thought that most civilizations would harbor as little ill will for us as we do for the snail darter (a small fish whose survival was an environ- mental issue).'* Yet, that species survived only because of a decision to grant protection. A species as far advanced beyond us as we are beyond snail darters might or might not decide that we deserve protection from extinction. A desire for security has been a constant in human social evolution; it is reasonable to assume that extraterrestrials also would make it a primary requirement. An alien society that had experienced conflict within its own species and possibly with others would worry about security and might be primed to make assumptions.’ One bad experience could be enough, if it lived on in history and legend. Brin suggested a scenario. An earlier technological species could have unleashed a wave of irresponsible colonization, leaving overexploited worlds and ravaged ecospheres in its wake. Earth might be among the few worlds with life to have escaped. Malevolence is not required, only short- Assumptions: After Contact