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Scientists in many other fields frequently propose exotic explanations of physical phenomena. Although hypotheses such as string theory have not yet been proven, their authors are taken seriously enough to receive taxpayer-funded grants. The search for extraterrestrial intelligence is far more precarious. As astronomers Iosif Shklovskii and Carl Sagan pointed out, there are unconscious factors operating in the arguments of both the proponents and their opponents." Those who most doubt that we will find evidence of alien minds some- times seem to be motivated by a healthy skepticism about unproven theo- ries. At other times, they seem driven by philosophies, religious or ideological beliefs, or emotions. We could make similar comments about those who are most confident that the search will succeed. Despite the advances that science has made, no one can invoke authority on these questions. The widespread belief that intelligent extraterrestrials exist still rests on logic and intuition, not observations and experiments. That does not mean that this belief is wrong—only that it is unproven. The cardinal question of the actual outcome of the encounter of mankind with extraterrestrial civilization—whether it will be beneficial or harmful— has not been answered unanimously. —Soviet astronomer S.A. Kaplan, 1969'* Why do we search for others? It may be more than curiosity, or an exten- sion of normal science. In modern times, the search has been driven increasingly by a desire to introduce new and hopefully positive factors into human affairs. During most of its long history, this debate did not address the effects of encountering alien intelligence. Some authors used imaginary meetings with aliens on the Moon (and the Sun!) to satirize our own species and to suggest utopian futures, but they rarely foresaw significant consequences arising from contact. The threat posed by a multitude of inhabited worlds was to the presuppositions of dominant thought systems, not to human safety." The debate went through a major turning point in the 1890s. Improve- ments in astronomical technology and technique had sharpened our per- ceptions of other planets, particularly Mars. Percival Lowell’s theories about an advanced civilization on the red planet stirred widespread interest. They also stimulated fictional statements about direct contact with Martians who traveled through space to the Earth, using their greater Consequences Consequences