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92 Almost certainly once a species with the requisite intelligence, manipulative ability, and complex social organization has evolved, technological civilization will develop. ...To go from a stone age culture to our present level of technological development required no biological evolution. All that was needed was the develop- ment of ideas, and their testing by trial and error." At its simplest, anthropologist Bernard Campbell reminded us, technol- ogy is older than reason. Some researchers have suggested that the ability to make and use simple stone tools is a primitive behavioral capacity that may have been “discovered” many times and utilized by more than one type of hominid. “If we hadn’t walked out of Africa (with tools),” Morris proposed, “then probably sooner rather than later, our analogues would have strolled out of South America holding tools.” Others argue that technological development is not inevitable; the motive must be present as well as the potential. One driving force for technological progress may be competition. Much human technology is motivated by the desire for efficient weapons.’ Although some see technology as a negative force that damages our environment, others argue that it is precisely because humanity has learned to control some aspects of nature that civilization has advanced. Iconoclas- tic historian Felipe Fernandez-Armesto proposed that a society is civilized in direct proportion to its distance from the unmodified natural environ- ment, by its taming of climate, geography, and ecology.’ The most civilized do what is condemned by some environmentalists: They reshape the world around them to suit their purposes. Intelligence—or knowledge—may not necessarily lead to technological societies. Human civilizations with highly developed forms of sociopoliti- cal organization did not all have highly developed technology. In his book Guns, Germs, and Steel, physiologist Jared Diamond argued that human societies achieved different levels of technology not because of differences in culture or ability, but because of different sets of geo- graphical advantages and disadvantages."* Intelligent beings that evolved in alien environments also would have different combinations. In less advantaged environments, technological development might be slower than on Earth; in more advantaged environments, it might be faster. The rapid technological development that we have been experiencing is a very recent phenomenon. It may be driven by complex combinations of factors that might not be duplicated elsewhere. We cannot assume that the human case is typical, that our pattern of development will prevail on other worlds; there is nothing universal or necessary about its history.” We must draw a distinction between technology and science; one does not automatically imply the other. Science is not a convergent phenomenon in our history, several scholars have argued, but a cultural development unique to post-Renaissance Europe, only recently adopted by most remain- ing cultures—and even then rather reluctantly. Technology can develop independently of science.” Probabilities: Civilization, Technology, and Science