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about 100 protons. The energy released by the strong nuclear force is substantially greater than the electromagnetic (chemical) force. The explosion from atoms being split apart is substantially greater than one from chemical explosives. Thus the life. The "weak" nuclear force governs atomic instability and radioactivity. This is the force that causes the disintegration of heavier nuclei. This force can create heat, such as the decay of radioactive elements in Earth's core and in a nuclear power plant. Michael Faraday introduced electrical and magnetic fields, and James Clerk Maxwell established their classic equations in the 1860s. In 1915 Einstein discovered the field equations for gravity. Finally, in the 1970s, relying on the earlier work of C. N. Yang and R. L. Mills, the field equations for subatomic forces were established (now called Yang- Mills fields). Within six decades of Riemann's pivotal lecture, Einstein would use four-dimensional Riemannian geometry for his famed theory of relativity. Within seven decades, Theodr Kaluza at the University of Konigsberg, Germany, would use five-dimensional Riemannian geometry to integrate both gravity and light. Light is now viewed as a vibration in the fifth dimension. Oskar Klein made several improvements, including the calculation of the size of the fifth dimension—the Planck length, 10' centimeters—much too small to detect experimentally. 130 years after Riemann's famous lecture, physicists would extend the Kaluza-Klein constructs to develop ten-dimensional geometry in their attempt to unite all the laws of the physical universe.'°° Restricted to three or four dimensions and trapped by common sense, the field equations of these various forces eluded unification into a single view We since have discovered that Einstein's gravity fields, Maxwell's fields, and the Yang-Mills fields can all be unified in hyperspaces. We have also discovered that the laws of nature become simpler and more elegant when expressed in higher dimensions. In 1984 Michael Green of Queen Mary's College in London and John Schwarz of the California Institute of Technology developed a more advanced version of the Kaluza- Klein theory. This advanced version was called "superstrings," in which all matter consists of tiny vibrating strings. "Strings" are one-dimensional line elements that vibrate or resonate in multiple spatial dimensions. All matter is composed of nothing but the harmonies created by a vibrating string. Each mode of vibration represents a distinct resonance or particle. The smallest vibration of the closed string is the graviton, the quantum of gravity. Our universe is now viewed as being made up of ten dimensions.’ Four of the dimensions are directly measurable, but six of them are "curled" into the Planck length, less than 10-** cm., and thus are discernable only by indirect means." 58 strong force causes the stars to shine and the sun to wadi' our Earth; it, too, is essential for SUPERSTRINGS